Right from ancient times, India had faced innumerable foreign invasions. But with the passage of time, the invaders had settled in the country, mingled with the local population and got assimilated into the Indian way of life. Indian history forms a fascinating study of the initial clash and subsequent coexistence between various cultures during different periods. Each period of the history of this country enriches its culture with its unique beauty.

The Glories of Ancient India

Ancient Indian civilization which spanned a vast time frame dating from the pre-historic era till the 7th century AD was famed throughout the world for its glorious achievements in both the sciences and the arts. The zero and the decimal system were notable contributions of ancient India to mathematics. Aryabhatta, the famed astronomer of the 6th century AD had accurately calculated the movement of the earth around the sun.
In the field of medicine too a highly-developed system had evolved by the 4th century AD. The Charaka Samhita is a well-known medical treatise of this period. Medical practitioners were familiar with surgical skills such as repairing injured body parts, setting bones, etc. Sushruta was a famous surgeon of this era. Plastic surgery was also known in ancient India. Tools for various surgical procedures such as suturing, cauterization and fluid extraction had been developed.
The India of those times had made giant strides in architecture too. The skill of these artisans is evident in the rich carvings of the ancient temples. The hard rock sculptures carved out on the temple walls have lasted for centuries. The style of rock-cut architecture which was first mastered by the Buddhists was later on adopted by the Hindu rulers. One can for instance view these stunning masterpieces on the way to Gwalior Fort. Rock-cut architecture was prevalent in the South too. South Indian temples owe their grandeur to the granite and metal used in their construction.
Ancient Indian treatises dealing with both art and architecture stressed on the importance of color in arts and crafts as well as in buildings. The remarkable achievements of this time were the invention of paints which were used on buildings. Despite the vagaries of time these colors have retained their brightness. The most famous instances are the temples of Ellora and the cave paintings of Ajanta which have survived for more than 1000 years.
Till the 7th century AD ancient India had been unified by strong dynasties such as the Guptas and the Mauryas. An important reason for the technological progress in this period was the generous state support and encouragement given to it. But with the passage of time, there was a change in the situation. During the 7th century there was a decline in state support, especially in the Rajput kingdoms. Further the death of powerful rulers like Harsha of Kanauj and Pulakesin II of the Chalukyan dynasty in the Deccan marked the decline of ancient Indian culture and civilization and the end of national unity.
Orthodox Brahminism had established its dominance by then and under the influence of the priestly class, scientific learning and technological progress suffered a setback. Learning was made the sole privilege of the Brahmins. The liberalism of the earlier eras was replaced by rigid casteism in which barriers between different castes were enforced. Social evils such as untouchability and inequality set in. Foreign travel was forbidden as a result of which India became totally ignorant of developments in the outside world. Scientific reasoning and logic were replaced by blind belief and faith. Owing to the strong hold of superstition, battlefield strategies were planned according to astrological timings rather than to the situation on the battle front.
There was no concept of national unity due to the rigid caste barriers. Military duty was the sole privilege of the Kshatriyas or the warrior caste. Contemporary writers had noted the fact that peasants were calmly tilling the soil even when there were battles raging nearby. The 7th and 8th centuries represent a landmark era in Indian history as it was during this period that India entered a dark period in its history. The country witnessed the major incursions by forces from Arabia followed by onslaughts from the Turks of Central Asia in the later centuries.
The Arab invasion
India on the eve of these invasions between the 8th and 12th centuries presented a picture of disunity. It was divided into several small states and principalities. Though the ruling elite of these states belonged to different castes, they were referred to as Rajputs. For instance, King Dahir of Sindh was a Brahmin whereas the Rajputs of southern Afghanistan (then known as Zabulistan) belonged to the Bhatti clan. Each state owed its loyalty to its ruler and there was no sense of national identity. There were frequent feuds and wars between these states which hampered the growth of national unity. More than anything else, these conflicts were a show of military prowess which involved the wastage of valuable lives and resources. This practice proved to be extremely dangerous in the long run as it prevented them from uniting against the invaders from Arabia and Central Asia.
Owing to its fabulous wealth, its weak political structure, and the poor state of its defense preparedness India was literally a sitting duck for the muslim invaders from Arabia and later on the Turks from Central Asia. The two conflicting forces presented a study in contrasts. As opposed to the lack of patriotism among the Indians, the Arab and Turkish forces were unified by their religious zeal. Fired by their fervor for Islam they fought like desperadoes. They were inspired by their zeal to spread Islam by force and felt that regardless of victory or defeat, glory would be theirs. The Rajputs on the other hand had nothing higher than class or clan interests to fight for. Moreover; the invaders were militarily far superior as they were better organized and were well acquainted with the latest techniques of warfare.
The foreign onslaughts initially met with fierce resistance from the defending forces but they ultimately gained victory after much bloodshed. The first invasion was by the Arabs in the 8th century. Under the leadership of the young Muhammad Bin Qasim, they attacked Daibul in the Indus valley. Daibul was a port in those days located in the same site as present-day Karachi. A contemporary historian has left an interesting account of the conflict which took place in 712 AD. His narrative contains descriptions of a giant catapult set up by Muhammad Bin Qasim’s troops to launch the offensive with Arab spearmen posted along a trench dug out near the catapult. The attackers had stationed themselves outside the walls of a fortification of the defenders. As many as 500 soldiers were needed to work the catapult which was nicknamed ‘The Bride’. The attackers brought down the flagstaff of a temple inside the fort and this so disheartened the defenders that they were easily defeated by the Arab invaders.
Sindh which was then ruled by King Dahir was the next kingdom to be attacked by the Arabs. Dahir put up a heroic resistance but he was killed in battle and his kingdom was captured. Most of the women had immolated themselves, while those remaining were tortured and molested. According to contemporary lore, which affords us an interesting peek into those tempestuous times, two virgin princesses of king Dahir’s family were captured by Bin Qasim and sent to the Caliph so that the latter could satisfy his carnal desire. But the royal maidens destroyed their virginity and told the Caliph that Bin Qasim himself had initially outraged their modesty. The Islamic leader saw the evidence of their destroyed virginity, believed their story despite Bin Qasim’s protestations of innocence and had the latter put to death.
The Impact of Arab Rule on India and Vice Versa
The Arab conquest of Sindh and Multan established the first victory of Islam in India. This period represented the contact and conflict between Islamic and Hindu cultures. After their initial conquests the Arabs made further attempts to extend their territorial possessions in India but their attempts were thwarted by the Indian princes.
The initial period of conflict with the Indians gradually gave way to conciliation and cooperation. The invaders realized that they would need the cooperation of their Hindu subjects in ruling their new territorial acquisitions. They gave their subjects the status of zimmis or second-class citizens. Gradually the Indians began to be assimilated into the administration, thus leading to cordial relations between the two.
The Arabs were fascinated by the intellectual acumen of the Indians and the socio-cultural aspects of Indian thought. There were cultural exchanges between the ruler and the ruled. Brahmin and Buddhist scholars taught the Arab rulers various subjects such as mathematics, astronomy, Indian languages, literature and philosophy. Indian books were translated into Arabic and carried to Muslim countries so that the knowledge contained in them could be imparted in these foreign lands. Indian styles in architecture, music and painting also made an impact on the Arab settlers in Multan and Sindh. Indian architectural concepts were adopted by the Arabs in their constructions.
These settlers made Islam a part of religious life in their part of the country. Many Indians took to Islam voluntarily. Owing to their peaceful and conciliatory attitude, the Arabs succeeded in popularizing Islam. Thus for three centuries, the small Muslim states of Sind and Multan coexisted peacefully with their mighty Rajput neighbours.